Intravenous antibiotics for urinary tract infections in children with neurologic impairment.

BACKGROUND: Children with high-intensity neurologic impairment (HINI) have an increased risk of urinary tract infection (UTI) and prolonged intravenous (IV) antibiotic exposure. OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between short (≤3 days) and long (>3 days) IV antibiotic courses and UTI treatment failure in hospitalized children with HINI. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study examining UTI hospitalizations at 49 hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information System from 2016 to 2021 for children (1-18 years) with HINI. The primary outcome was UTI readmission within 30 days. Our secondary outcome was the association of hospital-level variation in short IV antibiotic course use with readmission. Readmission rates were compared between short and long courses using multivariable regression. RESULTS: Of 5612 hospitalizations, 3840 (68.4%) had short IV antibiotic courses. In our adjusted model, children with short IV courses were less likely than with long courses to have a 30-day UTI readmission (4.0%, 95% CI [3.6%, 4.5%] vs. 6.3%, 95% CI [5.1%, 7.8%]). Despite marked hospital-level variation in short IV course use (50.0%-87.5% of hospitalizations), there was no correlation with readmissions. CONCLUSIONS: Children with HINI hospitalized with UTI had low UTI readmission rates, but those who received long IV antibiotic courses were more likely to experience UTI readmission versus those receiving short courses. While residual confounding may influence our results, we did not find that short IV courses impacted readmission at the hospital level despite variation in use across institutions. Long IV antibiotic courses are associated with risks and may not confer benefit in this population.

Opportunities for Pharmacogenetic Testing to Guide Dosing of Medications in Youths With Medicaid.

Importance: There are an increasing number of medications with a high level of evidence for pharmacogenetic-guided dosing (PGx drugs). Knowledge of the prevalence of dispensings of PGx drugs and their associated genes may allow hospitals and clinical laboratories to determine which pharmacogenetic tests to implement. Objectives: To investigate the prevalence of outpatient dispensings of PGx drugs among Medicaid-insured youths, determine genes most frequently associated with PGx drug dispenses, and describe characteristics of youths who were dispensed at least 1 PGx drug. Design, Setting, and Participants: This serial cross-sectional study includes data from 2011 to 2019 among youths aged 0 to 17 years in the Marketscan Medicaid database. Data were analyzed from August to December 2022. Main Outcomes and Measures: PGx drugs were defined as any medication with level A evidence as determined by the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC). The number of unique youths dispensed each PGx drug in each year was determined. PGx drugs were grouped by their associated genes for which there was CPIC level A evidence to guide dosing, and a dispensing rate (No. of PGx drugs/100 000 youths) was determined for each group for the year 2019. Demographics were compared between youths dispensed at least 1 PGx drug and those not dispensed any PGx drugs. Results: The number of Medicaid-insured youths queried ranged by year from 2 078 683 youths in 2011 to 4 641 494 youths in 2017, including 4 126 349 youths (median [IQR] age, 9 [5-13] years; 2 129 926 males [51.6%]) in 2019. The proportion of Medicaid-insured youths dispensed PGx drugs increased from 289 709 youths (13.9%; 95% CI, 13.8%-14.0%) in 2011 to 740 072 youths (17.9%; 95% CI, 17.9%-18.0%) in 2019. Genes associated with the most frequently dispensed medications were CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP2C19 (9197.0 drugs [95% CI, 9167.7-9226.3 drugs], 8731.5 drugs [95% CI, 8702.5-8759.5 drugs], and 3426.8 drugs [95% CI, 3408.1-3443.9 drugs] per 100 000 youths, respectively). There was a higher percentage of youths with at least 1 chronic medical condition among youths dispensed at least 1 PGx drug (510 445 youths [69.0%; 95% CI, 68.8%-69.1%]) than among 3 386 277 youths dispensed no PGx drug (1 381 544 youths [40.8%; 95% CI, 40.7%-40.9%) (P < .001) in 2019. Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, there was an increasing prevalence of dispensings for PGx drugs. This finding suggests that pharmacogenetic testing of specific drug-gene pairs should be considered for frequently prescribed PGx drugs and their implicated genes.

Major Drug-Drug Interaction Exposure Among Medicaid-Insured Children in the Outpatient Setting.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Drug-drug interactions (DDIs) can cause adverse drug events, but little is known about DDI exposure in children in the outpatient setting. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of major DDI exposure and factors associated with higher DDI exposure rates among children in an outpatient setting. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study of children aged 0 to 18 years with ≥1 ambulatory encounter, and ≥2 dispensed outpatient prescriptions study using the 2019 Marketscan Medicaid database. DDIs (exposure to a major DDI for ≥1 day) and the adverse physiologic effects of each DDI were identified using DrugBank's interaction database. Primary outcomes included the prevalence and rate of major DDI exposure. We used logistic regression to assess patient characteristics associated with DDI exposure. We examined the rate of DDI exposures per 100 children by adverse physiologic effects category, and organ-level effects (eg, heart rate-corrected QT interval prolongation). RESULTS: Of 781 019 children with ≥2 medication exposures, 21.4% experienced ≥1 major DDI exposure. The odds of DDI exposure increased with age and with medical and mental health complexity. Frequently implicated drugs included: Clonidine, psychiatric medications, and asthma medications. The highest adverse physiologic effect exposure rate per 100 children included: Increased drug concentrations (14.6), central nervous system depression (13.6), and heart rate-corrected QT interval prolongation (9.9). CONCLUSIONS: One in 5 Medicaid-insured children with ≥2 prescription medications were exposed to major DDIs annually, with higher exposures in those with medical or mental health complexity. DDI exposure places children at risk for negative health outcomes and adverse drug events, especially in the harder-to-monitor outpatient setting.

Health Literacy-Informed Communication to Reduce Discharge Medication Errors in Hospitalized Children: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Inadequate communication between caregivers and clinicians at hospital discharge contributes to medication dosing errors in children. Health literacy-informed communication strategies during medication counseling can reduce dosing errors but have not been tested in the pediatric hospital setting. Objective: To test a health literacy-informed communication intervention to decrease liquid medication dosing errors compared with standard counseling in hospitalized children. Design, Setting, and Participants: This parallel, randomized clinical trial was performed from June 22, 2021, to August 20, 2022, at a tertiary care, US children's hospital. English- and Spanish-speaking caregivers of hospitalized children 6 years or younger prescribed a new, scheduled liquid medication at discharge were included in the analysis. Interventions: Permuted block (n = 4) randomization (1:1) to a health literacy-informed discharge medication communication bundle (n = 99) compared with standard counseling (n = 99). A study team member delivered the intervention consisting of a written, pictogram-based medication instruction sheet, teach back (caregivers state information taught), and demonstration of dosing with show back (caregivers show how they would draw the liquid medication in the syringe). Main Outcome and Measures: Observed dosing errors, assessed using a caregiver-submitted photograph of their child's medication-filled syringe and expressed as the percentage difference from the prescribed dose. Secondary outcomes included caregiver-reported medication knowledge. Outcome measurements were blinded to participant group assignment. Results: Among 198 caregivers randomized (mean [SD] age, 31.4 [6.5] years; 186 women [93.9%]; 36 [18.2%] Hispanic or Latino and 158 [79.8%] White), the primary outcome was available for 151 (76.3%). The observed mean (SD) percentage dosing error was 1.0% (2.2 percentage points) among the intervention group and 3.3% (5.1 percentage points) among the standard counseling group (absolute difference, 2.3 [95% CI, 1.0-3.6] percentage points; P < .001). Twenty-four of 79 caregivers in the intervention group (30.4%) measured an incorrect dose compared with 39 of 72 (54.2%) in the standard counseling group (P = .003). The intervention enhanced caregiver-reported medication knowledge compared with the standard counseling group for medication dose (71 of 76 [93.4%] vs 55 of 69 [79.7%]; P = .03), duration of administration (65 of 76 [85.5%] vs 49 of 69 [71.0%]; P = .04), and correct reporting of 2 or more medication adverse effects (60 of 76 [78.9%] vs 13 of 69 [18.8%]; P < .001). There were no differences in knowledge of medication name, indication, frequency, or storage. Conclusions and Relevance: A health literacy-informed discharge medication communication bundle reduced home liquid medication administration errors and enhanced caregiver medication knowledge compared with standard counseling. Routine use of these standardized strategies can promote patient safety following hospital discharge. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05143047.

Association of neighborhood opportunity and pediatric hospitalization rates in the United States.

We examined associations between a validated, multidimensional measure of social determinants of health and population-based hospitalization rates among children <18 years across 18 states from the 2017 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project State Inpatient Databases and the US Census. The exposure was ZIP code-level Child Opportunity Index (COI), a composite measure of neighborhood resources and conditions that matter for children's health. The cohort included 614,823 hospitalizations among a population of 29,244,065 children (21.02 hospitalizations per 1000). Adjusted hospitalization rates decreased significantly and in a stepwise fashion as COI increased (p < .001 for each), from 26.56 per 1000 (95% confidence interval [CI] 26.41-26.71) in very low COI areas to 14.76 per 1000 (95% CI 14.66-14.87) in very high COI areas (incidence rate ratio 1.8; 95% CI 1.78-1.81). Decreasing neighborhood opportunity was associated with increasing hospitalization rates among children in 18 US states. These data underscore the importance of social context and community-engaged solutions for health systems aiming to eliminate care inequities.

Disparities in Pharmacologic Restraint for Children Hospitalized in Mental Health Crisis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Children hospitalized with a mental health crisis often receive pharmacologic restraint for management of acute agitation. We examined associations between pharmacologic restraint use and race and ethnicity among children admitted for mental health conditions to acute care nonpsychiatric children's hospitals. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of children (aged 5-≤18 years) admitted for a primary mental health condition from 2018 to 2022 at 41 US children's hospitals. Pharmacologic restraint use was defined as parenteral administration of medications for acute agitation. The association of race and ethnicity and pharmacologic restraint was assessed using generalized linear multivariable mixed models adjusted for clinical and demographic factors. Stratified analyses were performed based on significant interaction analyses between covariates and race and ethnicity. RESULTS: The cohort included 61 503 hospitalizations. Compared with non-Hispanic Black children, children of non-Hispanic White (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.81; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.72-0.92), Asian (aOR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.68-0.99), or other race and ethnicity (aOR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.57-0.82) were less likely to receive pharmacologic restraint. There was no significant difference with Hispanic children. When stratified by sex, racial/ethnic differences were magnified in males (aORs, 0.49-0.68), except for Hispanic males, and not found in females (aORs, 0.83-0.93). Sensitivity analysis revealed amplified disparities for all racial/ethnic groups, including Hispanic youth (aOR, 0.65; 95% CI, 0.47-0.91). CONCLUSIONS: Non-Hispanic Black children were significantly more likely to receive pharmacologic restraint. More research is needed to understand reasons for these disparities, which may be secondary to implicit bias and systemic and interpersonal racism.

Trends in Outpatient Influenza Antiviral Use Among Children and Adolescents in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Influenza antivirals improve outcomes in children with duration of symptoms <2 days and those at high risk for influenza complications. Real-world prescribing of influenza antivirals in the pediatric population is unknown. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study of outpatient and emergency department prescription claims in individuals <18 years of age included in the IBM Marketscan Commercial Claims and Encounters Database between July 1, 2010 and June 30, 2019. Influenza antiviral use was defined as any dispensing of oseltamivir, baloxavir, or zanamivir. The primary outcome was the rate of antiviral dispensing per 1000 enrolled children. Secondary outcomes included antiviral dispensing per 1000 influenza diagnoses and inflation-adjusted costs of antiviral agents. Outcomes were calculated and stratified by age, acute versus prophylactic treatment, influenza season, and geographic region. RESULTS: The analysis included 1 416 764 unique antiviral dispensings between 2010 and 2019. Oseltamivir was the most frequently prescribed antiviral (99.8%). Dispensing rates ranged from 4.4 to 48.6 per 1000 enrolled children. Treatment rates were highest among older children (12-17 years of age), during the 2017 to 2018 influenza season, and in the East South Central region. Guideline-concordant antiviral use among young children (<2 years of age) at a high risk of influenza complications was low (<40%). The inflation-adjusted cost for prescriptions was $208 458 979, and the median cost ranged from $111 to $151. CONCLUSIONS: There is wide variability and underuse associated with influenza antiviral use in children. These findings reveal opportunities for improvement in the prevention and treatment of influenza in children.

Priorities and Progress in Gram-positive Bacterial Infection Research by the Antibacterial Resistance Leadership Group: A Narrative Review.

The Antibacterial Resistance Leadership Group (ARLG) has prioritized infections caused by gram-positive bacteria as one of its core areas of emphasis. The ARLG Gram-positive Committee has focused on studies responding to 3 main identified research priorities: (1) investigation of strategies or therapies for infections predominantly caused by gram-positive bacteria, (2) evaluation of the efficacy of novel agents for infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococci, and (3) optimization of dosing and duration of antimicrobial agents for gram-positive infections. Herein, we summarize ARLG accomplishments in gram-positive bacterial infection research, including studies aiming to (1) inform optimal vancomycin dosing, (2) determine the role of dalbavancin in MRSA bloodstream infection, (3) characterize enterococcal bloodstream infections, (4) demonstrate the benefits of short-course therapy for pediatric community-acquired pneumonia, (5) develop quality of life measures for use in clinical trials, and (6) advance understanding of the microbiome. Future studies will incorporate innovative methodologies with a focus on interventional clinical trials that have the potential to change clinical practice for difficult-to-treat infections, such as MRSA bloodstream infections.

Validation of Childhood Pneumonia Prognostic Models for Use in Emergency Care Settings.

BACKGROUND: Unwarranted variation in disposition decisions exist among children with pneumonia. We validated three prognostic models for predicting pneumonia severity among children in the emergency department (ED) and hospital. METHODS: We performed a two-center, prospective study of children 6 months to <18 years presenting to the ED with pneumonia from January 2014 to May 2019. We evaluated three previously developed disease-specific prognostic models which use demographic, clinical, and diagnostic predictor variables, with each model estimating risk for Very Severe (mechanical ventilation or shock), Severe (ICU without very severe features), and Moderate/Mild (Hospitalization without severe features or ED discharge) pneumonia. Predictive accuracy was measured using discrimination (concordance or c-statistic) and re-calibration. RESULTS: There were 1088 children included in one or more of the three models. Median age was 3.6 years and the majority of children were male (53.7%) and identified as non-Hispanic White (63.7%). The distribution for the ordinal severity outcome was mild or moderate (79.1%), severe (15.9%), and very severe (4.9%). The three models each demonstrated excellent discrimination (C-statistic range across models [0.786-0.803]) with no appreciable degradation in predictive accuracy from the derivation cohort. CONCLUSIONS: All three prognostic models accurately identified risk for three clinically meaningful levels of pneumonia severity and demonstrated very good predictive performance. Physiologic variables contributed the most to model prediction. Application of these objective tools may help standardize and improve disposition and other management decisions for children with pneumonia.

Positive Predictive Value of ICD-10 Codes to Identify Acute Suicidal and Self Harm Behaviors.

OBJECTIVE: The accuracy of diagnosis codes to identify suicidal behaviors, including suicide ideation (SI) and self-harm (SH) events, is unknown. The objective of this study was to determine the positive predictive value (PPV) of International Classification of Disease, 10th Revision codes to identify SI/SH events that may be used in studies using administrative and claims data. METHODS: We performed a secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study of children 5 to 17 years of age hospitalized at 2 US children's hospitals with a discharge diagnosis of a neuropsychiatric event, including an SI or SH event. A true International Classification of Disease, 10th Revision SI or SH diagnosis was defined as SI or SH present on admission and directly related to hospitalization as compared with physician record review. PPV with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated overall and stratified by diagnosis order and age (5 to 11 years vs 12 to 17 years). RESULTS: There were 376 children or adolescents with a discharge diagnosis of an SI or SH event. The median age was 14 years, and the majority of individuals were female (58%), non-Hispanic White (69%), and privately insured (57%). A total of 332 confirmed SI/SH cases were identified with a PPV of 0.88 (95% CI 0.85-0.91). PPVs were similar when stratified by diagnosis order: primary 0.94 (95% 0.88-0.97) versus secondary 0.86 (95% CI 81-90). PPVs were also similar in adolescents (0.89, CI 0.85-0.92) compared with children (0.84, 95% CI 0.74-0.91). CONCLUSIONS: The use of these validated code sets to identify SI or SH events may minimize misclassification in future studies of suicidal and self-harm hospitalizations.

Population-Based Incidence of Influenza-Associated Serious Neuropsychiatric Events in Children and Adolescents.

This cohort study assesses the incidence of influenza-associated serious neuropsychiatric events among US children and adolescents.

Management of Pediatric Pneumonia: A Decade After the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America Guideline.

BACKGROUND: Incomplete uptake of guidelines can lead to nonstandardized care, increased expenditures, and adverse clinical outcomes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of the 2011 Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America (PIDS/IDSA) pediatric community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) guideline that emphasized aminopenicillin use and de-emphasized the use of chest radiographs (CXRs) in certain populations. METHODS: This quasi-experimental study queried a national administrative database of children's hospitals to identify children aged 3 months-18 years with CAP who visited 1 of 28 participating hospitals from 2009 to 2021. PIDS/IDSA pediatric CAP guideline recommendations regarding antibiotic therapy, diagnostic testing, and imaging were evaluated. Segmented regression interrupted time series was used to measure guideline-concordant practices with interruptions for guideline publication and the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. RESULTS: Of 315 384 children with CAP, 71 804 (22.8%) were hospitalized. Among hospitalized children, there was a decrease in blood culture performance (0.5% per quarter) and increase in aminopenicillin prescribing (1.1% per quarter). Among children discharged from the emergency department (ED), there was an increase in aminopenicillin prescription (0.45% per quarter), whereas the rate of obtaining CXRs declined (0.12% per quarter). However, use of CXRs rebounded during the COVID-19 pandemic (increase of 1.56% per quarter). Hospital length of stay, ED revisit rates, and hospital readmission rates remained stable. CONCLUSIONS: Guideline publication was associated with an increase of aminopenicillin prescribing. However, rates of diagnostic testing did not materially change, suggesting the need to consider implementation strategies to meaningfully change clinical practice for children with CAP.

Characteristics Associated With Serious Self-Harm Events in Children and Adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: To identify patterns of psychiatric comorbidity among children and adolescents with a serious self-harm event. METHODS: We studied children aged 5 to 18 years hospitalized with a neuropsychiatric event at 2 children's hospitals from April 2016 to March 2020. We used Bayesian profile regression to identify distinct clinical profiles of risk for self-harm events from 32 covariates: age, sex, and 30 mental health diagnostic groups. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% credible intervals (CIs) were calculated compared with a reference profile with the overall baseline risk of the cohort. RESULTS: We included 1098 children hospitalized with a neuropsychiatric event (median age 14 years [interquartile range (IQR) 11-16]). Of these, 406 (37%) were diagnosed with a self-harm event. We identified 4 distinct profiles with varying risk for a self-harm diagnosis. The low-risk profile (median 0.035 [IQR 0.029-0.041]; OR 0.08, 95% CI 0.04-0.15) was composed primarily of children aged 5 to 9 years without a previous psychiatric diagnosis. The moderate-risk profile (median 0.30 [IQR 0.27-0.33]; reference profile) included psychiatric diagnoses without depressive disorders. Older female adolescents with a combination of anxiety, depression, substance, and trauma disorders characterized the high-risk profile (median 0.69 [IQR 0.67-0.70]; OR 5.09, 95% CI 3.11-8.38). Younger males with mood and developmental disorders represented the very high-risk profile (median 0.76 [IQR 0.73-0.79]; OR 7.21, 95% CI 3.69-15.20). CONCLUSIONS: We describe 4 separate profiles of psychiatric comorbidity that can help identify children at elevated risk for a self-harm event and subsequent opportunities for intervention.

Antibiotic clinical decision support for pneumonia in the ED: A randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Electronic health record-based clinical decision support (CDS) is a promising antibiotic stewardship strategy. Few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of antibiotic CDS in the pediatric emergency department (ED). OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of antibiotic CDS vs. usual care for promoting guideline-concordant antibiotic prescribing for pneumonia in the pediatric ED. DESIGN: Pragmatic randomized clinical trial. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Encounters for children (6 months-18 years) with pneumonia presenting to two tertiary care children s hospital EDs in the United States. INTERVENTION: CDS or usual care was randomly assigned during 4-week periods within each site. The CDS intervention provided antibiotic recommendations tailored to each encounter and in accordance with national guidelines. MAIN OUTCOME AND MEASURES: The primary outcome was exclusive guideline-concordant antibiotic prescribing within the first 24 h of care. Safety outcomes included time to first antibiotic order, encounter length of stay, delayed intensive care, and 3- and 7-day revisits. RESULTS: 1027 encounters were included, encompassing 478 randomized to usual care and 549 to CDS. Exclusive guideline-concordant prescribing did not differ at 24 h (CDS, 51.7% vs. usual care, 53.3%; odds ratio [OR] 0.94 [95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.73, 1.20]). In pre-specified stratified analyses, CDS was associated with guideline-concordant prescribing among encounters discharged from the ED (74.9% vs. 66.0%; OR 1.53 [95% CI: 1.01, 2.33]), but not among hospitalized encounters. Mean time to first antibiotic was shorter in the CDS group (3.0 vs 3.4 h; p = .024). There were no differences in safety outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Effectiveness of ED-based antibiotic CDS was greatest among those discharged from the ED. Longitudinal interventions designed to target both ED and inpatient clinicians and to address common implementation challenges may enhance the effectiveness of CDS as a stewardship tool.

Caregiver and Clinician Perspectives on Discharge Medication Counseling: A Qualitative Study.

OBJECTIVES: Children are at increased risk for medication errors and the transition from hospital-to-home is a vulnerable time for errors to occur. This study aimed to explore the perspectives of multidisciplinary clinicians and caregivers regarding discharge medication counseling and to develop a conceptual model to inform intervention efforts to reduce discharge medication dosing errors. METHODS: We conducted semistructured interviews with clinicians and caregivers of children <4 years old discharged from the hospital on a liquid medication. A hierarchical coding system was developed using the interview guide and several transcripts. Qualitative analysis employed an iterative inductive-deductive approach to identify domains and subthemes and inform a conceptual framework. RESULTS: We conducted focus groups and individual interviews with 17 caregivers and 16 clinicians. Using the Donabedian structure-process-outcomes model of quality evaluation, domains and subthemes included: (1) infrastructure of healthcare delivery, including supplies for counseling, content and organization of discharge instructions, clinician training and education, roles and responsibilities of team members, and hospital pharmacy delivery and counseling program; (2) processes of healthcare delivery, including medication reconciliation, counseling content, counseling techniques, and language barriers and health literacy; and (3) measurable outcomes, including medication dosing accuracy and caregiver understanding and adherence to discharge instructions. CONCLUSIONS: The conceptual model resulting from this analysis can be applied to the development and evaluation of interventions to reduce discharge medication dosing errors following a hospitalization. Interventions should use a health literacy universal precautions approach-written materials with plain language and pictures and verbal counseling with teach-back and show-back.

Parental Perceptions of Penicillin Allergy Risk Stratification and Delabeling.

BACKGROUND: Penicillin (PCN) allergy labels are widely recognized to be highly inaccurate. Little is known about parental perceptions of the PCN allergy evaluation and removal process, especially in the hospital setting. METHODS: Focus groups were held with parents of children and adolescents with a PCN allergy label discharged from a large academic children's hospital between January 1, 2019, and April 15, 2020. The open-ended, semistructured moderator guide included questions about PCN allergy testing and evaluation, accuracy of the PCN allergy diagnosis, amoxicillin oral challenges, delabeling process, and preferred setting for PCN allergy delabeling evaluation (outpatient clinic, hospital, etc). Study investigators coded the transcripts and identified underlying themes using inductive and deductive thematic analysis. RESULTS: A total of 21 parents and 2 adolescents participated across 4 focus groups. We developed a theoretical framework depicting key elements of parents' and adolescents' experiences with PCN allergies, consisting of 4 major interconnected themes: (1) family context; (2) the invitation to delabel; (3) decision context; and (4) the PCN delabeling outcome. PCN allergies remained a concern for families even if their children passed an oral challenge. Some parents preferred testing to be performed in the hospital and felt this was a safer location for the procedure. CONCLUSIONS: Parents are amenable to hospital based PCN allergy evaluation and delabeling. Further studies should incorporate parental and patient preferences to implement safe and effective PCN allergy delabeling processes in the hospital setting.

Association of Radiology Findings with Etiology of Community Acquired Pneumonia among Children.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between consolidation on chest radiograph and typical bacterial etiology of childhood community acquired pneumonia (CAP) in the Etiology of Pneumonia in the Community study. STUDY DESIGN: Hospitalized children <18 years of age with CAP enrolled in the Etiology of Pneumonia in the Community study at 3 children's hospitals between January 2010 and June 2012 were included. Testing of blood and respiratory specimens used multiple modalities to identify typical and atypical bacterial, or viral infection. Study radiologists classified chest radiographs (consolidation, other infiltrates [interstitial and/or alveolar], pleural effusion) using modified World Health Organization pneumonia criteria. Infiltrate patterns were compared according to etiology of CAP. RESULTS: Among 2212 children, there were 1302 (59%) with consolidation with or without other infiltrates, 910 (41%) with other infiltrates, and 296 (13%) with pleural effusion. In 1795 children, at least 1 pathogen was detected. Among these patients, consolidation (74%) was the most frequently observed pattern (74% in typical bacterial CAP, 58% in atypical bacterial CAP, and 54% in viral CAP). Positive and negative predictive values of consolidation for typical bacterial CAP were 12% (95% CI 10%-15%) and 96% (95% CI 95%-97%) respectively. In a multivariable model, typical bacterial CAP was associated with pleural effusion (OR 7.3, 95% CI 4.7-11.2) and white blood cell ≥15 000/mL (OR 3.2, 95% CI 2.2-4.9), and absence of wheeze (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3-0.8) or viral detection (OR 0.2, 95% CI 0.1-0.4). CONCLUSIONS: Consolidation predicted typical bacterial CAP poorly, but its absence made typical bacterial CAP unlikely. Pleural effusion was the best predictor of typical bacterial infection, but too uncommon to aid etiology prediction.

Pharmacologic restraint use for children experiencing mental health crises in pediatric hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Children in mental health crises are increasingly admitted to children's hospitals awaiting inpatient psychiatric placement. During hospitalization, patients may exhibit acute agitation prompting pharmacologic restraint use. OBJECTIVE: To determine hospital-level incidence and variation of pharmacologic restraint use among children admitted for mental health conditions in children's hospitals. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: We examined data for children (5 to ≤18 years) admitted to children's hospitals with a primary mental health condition from 2018 to 2020 using the Pediatric Health Information System database. Hospital rates of parenteral pharmacologic restraint use per 1000 mental health bed days were determined and compared after adjusting for patient-level and demographic factors. Cluster analysis (k-means) was used to group hospitals based on overall restraint use (rate quartiles) and drug class. Hospital-level factors for pharmacologic restraint use were compared. RESULTS: Of 29,834 included encounters, 3747 (12.6%) had pharmacologic restraint use. Adjusted hospital rates ranged from 35 to 389 pharmacologic restraint use days per 1000 mental health bed days with a mean of 175 (standard deviation: 72). Cluster analysis revealed three hospitals were high utilizers of all drug classes. No significant differences in pharmacologic restraint use were found in the hospital-level analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Children's hospitals demonstrate wide variation in pharmacologic restraint rates for mental health hospitalizations, with a 10-fold difference in adjusted rates between highest and lowest utilizers, and high overall utilizers order medications across all drug classes.

Polypharmacy among medicaid-insured children with and without documented obesity.

OBJECTIVE: Polypharmacy increases the risk of drug-drug interactions and adverse drug events. As obesity and rates of obesity-associated comorbid chronic conditions continue to rise, an improved understanding of whether children with obesity experience higher risk of polypharmacy is needed. This study aimed to compare chronic medication polypharmacy prevalence among children with and without a diagnosis of obesity. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional examination of prescription data for children aged 2-18 years prescribed ≥1 chronic medication using the 2019 Marketscan Medicaid database. Children with documented obesity were identified using medical visit diagnosis codes. Chronic medications included any ≥30-day prescription with ≥2 dispensed refills. Polypharmacy was defined as the prescription of ≥2 chronic medications for ≥1 overlapping days. Chi-squared tests compared polypharmacy prevalence and the distribution of chronic medication classes between children with and without obesity. Logistic regression determined the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of polypharmacy for children with obesity, adjusting for relevant demographic and clinical differences. RESULTS: Of 634,671 included children, 12.2% had documented obesity. More than one-half (52.7%) of children with obesity experienced polypharmacy compared with 47.6% of children without obesity (aOR 1.06 [95% confidence interval 1.04-1.08]). Chronic medication prescriptions, particularly for psychiatric and asthma medications, were more commonly prescribed among children with obesity than those without obesity. CONCLUSIONS: Children with documented obesity have higher polypharmacy prevalence than children without obesity. Clinicians must be aware of this risk and minimize inappropriate polypharmacy whenever possible. Future work should examine the consequences of polypharmacy, including drug-drug interactions and adverse drug events in children with obesity.